Moonstruck Essay Example

Moonstruck Essay Loretta and religious aspects conveys clearly through this unforgettable movie. Additionally, regarding what Loretta has done, it is indirectly symbolizing the Western Culture where most married people usually dont consider the sanctity of marriage as one of the most important values of marriage. The way Loretta undergoes her life is really pathetic where her mind sticks with the perception that her life is based on bad luck: Because I have no luck. She believes that the reason why her husband gets killed In a bus accident is because of ere action In contravening the sacrament of marriage. As she was a Catholics, she knows that marriage should be held at a church, not a city hall where she said, Maybe If you gave me away, and I got married In a church, In a wedding dress, Instead of at the City Hall with strangers standing outside the door, maybe then I wouldnt have the bad luck I had. Likewise, her mother also thinks that it is better if Loretta doesnt get married again. Her mother says, Nil Bad luck! Your mom and I been fifty-two years and nobody died. You were married, what, two years, and embody is dead. We will write a custom essay sample on Moonstruck specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Moonstruck specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Moonstruck specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Dont get married again, Loretta. It doesnt work out for you. Thus, at the end, she believes that her next marriage with Johnny is just a formality. According to the sacraments of marriage, after men and women were engaged, no fornication should be involved. Lamentably, this rule sins followed by Loretta who has engaged in a sexual tryst with Irony Cameras, the younger brother of her fiancà ©Ã‚ ©, Johnny Cameral. However, both of them find their happiness together because they give something valuable to each other. Loretta makes Irony realize that he Is to the only person who has suffered hardship and Irony awakens her to the fact that she needs love and passion in her life, not a future marriage with a man who only gives an assurance of a stable life. Moreover, Loretta is more like Johnnys mother rather than a wife, because Johnny is like a big baby who always follows what his real mother says. Reflecting to what Loretta has done, her father, Cosmos Castration also violates the sanctity of marriage by having an affair with his mistress, Mona. However, since his wife, Rose Castration is a self-assured, strong Oman who is not afraid to assert herself over her husband, she reveals her feeling to him and makes him realize once again that he sincerely still loves his wife. With Loretta, she tries to repay It by making a confession to a priest in her church, meaning to release her guilty conscious of cheating on her fiancà ©Ã‚ ©. Moonstruck presents the relationship between Loretta and the Church as affirmative rather than oppressive. This Is shown by how the priest doesnt castigate her, Instead reminding her to not commit the past mistakes. Similarly, when Rose Castration prays deeply and Nils clearly clarets Tanat spiritually Is an Important aspect In near Tie. It Is very obvious to see that both Loretta and her mother have close connection between their life and their religious. Furthermore, when exploring the movie deeper, one sees that sanctity of marriage should be contained with humbleness, patience, honesty, forgiveness of mutual offenses, faith in the power of God, and kindness. As being a Catholic, Loretta and Her mother success in fulfilling those criteria and indeed, both of them have faith in the power of God that He will give the best for their marriage. In fact, Loretta mother knows that her husband is cheating on her and it Just based on her instinct as a wife. In addition, forgiveness is one true aspect that Loretta mother has where she truly forgives her husbands fault and only demands him to not meet his mistress again. This forgiveness can be seen in Loretta life where she forgives her parents for their past mistake for not letting her and her deceased husband marry in the church.

Battle of Midway in World War II

Battle of Midway in World War II The Battle of Midway was fought June 4-7, 1942, during World War II (1939-1945) and was the turning point of the war in the Pacific. Commanders U.S. Navy Admiral Chester Nimitz, Commander-in-Chief, U.S. Pacific FleetRear Admiral Frank J. Fletcher, Task Force 17 (senior tactical commander)Rear Admiral Raymond Spruance, Task Force 16 Imperial Japanese Navy Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, Commander-in-Chief, Combined Fleet Background In the months after their successful attack on the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor, the Japanese commenced a rapid push south into the Netherlands East Indies and Malaya. Driving back the British, they captured Singapore in February 1942 before defeating a combined Allied fleet in the Java Sea. Landing in the Philippines, they swiftly occupied much of Luzon before overcoming Allied resistance on the Bataan Peninsula in April. In the wake of these stunning victories, the Japanese sought to extend their control by securing all of New Guinea and occupying the Solomon Islands.  Moving to block this thrust, Allied naval forces scored a strategic victory at the Battle of Coral Sea on May 4-8 despite losing the carrier USS Lexington (CV-2).   Yamamotos Plan Following this setback, the commander of the Japanese Combined Fleet, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, devised a plan to draw the remaining ships of the U.S. Pacific Fleet into a battle where they could be destroyed. To accomplish this, he planned to invade the island of Midway, 1,300 miles northwest of Hawaii. Dubbed Operation MI, Yamamotos plan called for coordinating several battle groups across large expanses of ocean. These included  Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumos First Carrier Striking Force (4 carriers), Vice Admiral Nobutake Kondos invasion force, as well as the battleships of the First Fleet Main Force. This final unit was personally led by Yamamoto aboard the battleship Yamato. As Midway was key to Pearl Harbors defense, he believed the Americans would send their remaining aircraft carriers to protect the island. Due to faulty intelligence which had reported Yorktown sunk at Coral Sea, he believed only two American carriers remained in the Pacific. Nimitzs Response At Pearl Harbor, Admiral Chester Nimitz, Commander in Chief of the U.S. Pacific Fleet, was made aware of the impending attack by his team of cryptanalysts led by Lieutenant Commander Joseph Rochefort. Having successfully broken the Japanese JN-25 naval code, Rochefort was able to provide an outline of the Japanese plan of attack as well as the forces involved. To meet this threat, Nimitz dispatched Rear Admiral Raymond A. Spruance with the carriers USS Enterprise (CV-6) and USS Hornet (CV-8) to Midway hoping to surprise the Japanese. Though he had never commanded carriers previously, Spruance assumed this role as Vice Admiral William Bull Halsey was unavailable due to a severe case of dermatitis. The carrier USS Yorktown (CV-5), with Rear Admiral Frank J. Fletcher, followed two days later after damage received at Coral Sea was hastily repaired. Attack on Midway Around 9 a.m. on June 3, a PBY Catalina flying from Midway spotted Kondos force and reported its location. Acting on this information, a flight of nine B-17 Flying Fortresses took off from Midway and mounted an ineffective attack against the Japanese. At 4:30 a.m. on June 4, Nagumo launched 108 planes to attack Midway Island, as well as seven scout planes to locate the American fleet. As these aircraft were departing, 11 PBYs took off from Midway in search of Nagumos carriers. Brushing aside the islands small force of fighters, the Japanese planes pounded Midways installations. While returning to the carriers, the strike leaders recommended a second attack. In response, Nagumo ordered his reserve aircraft, which had been armed with torpedoes, to be rearmed with bombs. After this process had commenced, a scout plane from the cruiser Tone reported locating the American fleet. The Americans Arrive Upon receiving this news, Nagumo reversed his rearmament order. As a result, the hangar decks of the Japanese carriers were full of bombs, torpedoes, and fuel lines as ground crews scrambled to reequip the aircraft. As Nagumo vacillated, the first of Fletchers planes arrived over the Japanese fleet. Armed with sighting reports from the PBYs which had located the enemy at 5:34 a.m., Fletcher had begun launching his aircraft at 7 a.m. The first squadrons to arrive were the TBD Devastator torpedo bombers from Hornet (VT-8) and Enterprise (VT-6). Attacking at a low level, they failed to score a hit and suffered heavy casualties. In the case of the former, the entire squadron was lost with only Ensign George H. Gay, Jr. surviving after being rescued by a PBY after spending 30 hours in the water. Dive Bombers Strike the Japanese Though VT-8 and VT-6 did not do any damage, their attack, coupled with the late arrival of VT-3, pulled the Japanese combat air patrol out of position, leaving the fleet vulnerable. At 10:22 a.m., American SBD Dauntless dive bombers approaching from the southwest and northeast struck the carriers Kaga, Soryu, and Akagi. In less than six minutes they reduced the Japanese ships to burning wrecks. In response, the remaining Japanese carrier, Hiryu, launched a counter-strike. Arriving in two waves, its planes twice disabled Yorktown. Later that afternoon, American dive bombers located Hiryu and sank it, completing the victory. Aftermath On the night of June 4, both sides retired to plan their next move. By 2:55 a.m., Yamamoto ordered his fleet to return to base. In the following days, American aircraft sunk the cruiser Mikuma, while the Japanese submarine I-168 torpedoed and sank the disabled Yorktown. The defeat at Midway broke the back of the Japanese carrier fleet and resulted in the loss of invaluable aircrews. It also marked the end of major Japanese offensive operations as the initiative passed to the Americans. That August, U.S. Marines landed on Guadalcanal and began the long march to Tokyo. Casualties U.S. Pacific Fleet Losses 340 killedAircraft Carrier USS YorktownDestroyer USS Hammann145 aircraft Imperial Japanese Navy Losses 3,057 killedAircraft Carrier AkagiAircraft Carrier KagaAircraft Carrier SoryuAircraft Carrier HiryuHeavy Cruiser Mikuma228 aircraft

Traxial Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Traxial - Lab Report Example A triaxial cell was used in the experiment. The soil was encased in the cell. The soil was loaded hydrostatically until the desired pressure was obtained. The axial load was increased up to the soil failure, when the pressure was constant. The resulting deformation, and applied load was measured using a system of acquiring data, and load deformation curves plotted. When the soil reached a high confine pressure, it reached a brittle-ductile transition (Ferrari, A. laloui, L. & Koliji, A. 2011). Beyond this stress condition, the soil increased the load capabilities with no observed failure due to the additional axial strain that was imposed (Zhang et al. 2010) Introduction A triaxial compression test involves a method that is used in measuring the chemical properties of solids that are deformed such as rocks, soil, powders, or granular components. During this method, water or oil as medium of confining is normally used to ensure that the confining pressure is same in the different dire ctions. In the case of loose granular components like sand, the soil is kept in a cylindrical latex sleeve having a flat circular platen or metal plate covering the bottom and the top ends (Ferrari, A. laloui, L. & Koliji, A. 2011). The cylinder would then be placed inside the water bath to offer pressure along the cylindrical sides. The top metal plate would be driven mechanically down or up along the cylinder axis to have the material squeezed. In this case, the distance covered by the top metal plate is obtained as a force function that is needed to be moved. In this case, the surrounding water pressure is controlled carefully (Zhang et al. 2010). The volume net change of the given material would equally be measured depending on the amount of water that moves inside and outside the bath (Ferrari, A. laloui, L. & Koliji, A. 2011). This measurement is obtained whenever water has saturated the samples through taking the measurement of the quantity of water flowing in an out of the p ores of the given samples. In order to understanding the characteristics of the triaxial compression test, an experiment was set to investigate the undrained triaxial compression test. The key objective of the experiment was to find out the undrained shear strength of soil samples through the use of the triaxial compression test. Experiment procedure The apparatus used in the study involved a triaxial cell, and the soil component. Water under pressure was poured into the triaxial cell. The specimen was vertically loaded through a ring to ensure that the load was measured. The vertical load was increased up to when a failure occurred. At the same time, the vertical strain was recorded using the dial gauge. This test was repeated using different cell pressure values. The samples were extruded out of the tube and trimmed to the size of the soil sample. The soil sample had a diameter of 38mm and a length of 76 mm. The samples were then sleeved using a rubber membrane. The samples were t hen put on the pedestal at the cell bottom and sealed using a ring of rubber. The loading cap was placed on top of each sample and equally sealed using the rubber ring before having the drainage tube secured. After this, the cell was mounted over the sample and filled following the checklist of the flooding triaxial cell. The test was then set up with the help of the assistant from the clip studio, and the checklist for the pressurising triaxial cell completed before running the stages of the test. After completing the stages of

Presidency Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Presidency - Research Paper Example Thinking over it, I came to an answer that it is true that there has to be someone special, laced up with every possible leaderful quality that could look in to the country’s affairs and could take a charge of deciding good or bad for its people. But when I went through the constitutional policies of United States of America, I could see some lame constitutions which need to be either rectified or replaced. Its extract is that there is no vital role or power of a President except that he is a well dressed front man representative. In this paper I would discuss that do we actually need any President or not? CONSTITUTIONAL WEAKNESSES: The Constitution of United States explains there are eleven main duties which has to be done in relevance to the given power and authority to the President of a Country. Constitution says that â€Å"The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the ac tual Service of the United States† This explains that a president has to be a military official; can a democratic government handle a dictating official? Secondly since after the Mexican war 1848, United States never had a chance to protect the country and it is accepted that no other country on map can challenge United States in a war, then why do we still need a military person. Constitution says that â€Å"he may require the Opinion in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to Grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offenses against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment† It says that the president has a power to grant pardons, then for what reasons judiciary is there for? And if a president can misuse his power to grant an undeserved individual then isn’t he liable to stand for his account? Moreover, Executive departments are not me ntioned, and why can’t they just refer their current heads of the departments for their check and balance. Constitution says that â€Å"He shall have Power, †¦ to make Treaties, †¦ and he shall nominate, and †¦ shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for†¦all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for† In this constitution, all the power is given to Congress indirectly because whatever decision the President take, has to be approved from the Congress then what is the need of President in between, this could directly be done by a committee formed by Congress. Constitution says that â€Å"he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may a djourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers† It says that a president is liable to call congress before leaving for their home as if they cannot decide for themselves, it is much about ceremonial power; and further more there could be other officials who could go and receive ambassadors, then why president is there to fill in the place. It is obvious that a President could be

Code of Ethics Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Code of Ethics Paper - Essay Example business, if only to function as risk-management mechanisms; included here is the designing of conformity codes and course of action, or more popularly known as code of conduct or ethics (Baker 2006: p. 46). Regardless whether they are referred to as codes of conduct, codes of ethics or any other terms, the community nowadays expects professional and business organizations to possess codes that determine the guiding standards and norms of proper behavior demanded of their constituents. It is all the time more usual for individual business enterprises to also acknowledge the advantages of having these particular codes, advantages that are functional not merely to the businesses themselves but as well as to the personnel of those organizations, and to their shareholders. The progress of a code of ethics within a business organization is fragment of an essential communication mechanism. It facilitates management to put emphasis to the employees of the company the norms of behavior which they should abide by. It provides regulation and direction to employees who are faced with difficult decisions-making problems while carrying out their tasks; thereby it contributes to the creation of a suitable moral environment within the organization. As such, it can function as a tool for the assimilation of new employees into the principles of the company. General Electric, one of the most successful corporations in the world, has issued one set of policies to put into effect its Code of Conduct and to lend a hand of integrity to GE personnel all over the world. The fundamental duties of all employees and managers, consequences and penalties for infringements and how to deal with an integrity problem are discussed in their booklet. Nevertheless, the following are the principles embedded in GE’s code of conduct (General Electric 2004: p. 3): These policies should be obeyed by GE directors, officer, employees, subsidiaries and other controlled affiliates, non-controlled

Current theories and Models of leadership

Current theories and Models of leadership The topics of leadership and organizational culture have attracted considerable interest from both academics and practitioners. In modern World Leadership is taken as the most influencing factor of an Organization. Leaders are those people who make the organization move through definite path towards the success. As the other topics in the field of Organizational Environment, there are numerous numbers of studies and very relative theories on Leadership. The established study of Leadership includes. Trait Theory Group and Exchange Theory Contingency Theory Path-Goal Trait Theory This theory is all about the traits present in a person. The main objective is to recognize those traits which can produce a good leader. As per the ancient scholars The leaders are born not made. A theory called The Great Person Theory gave the right way to more realistic to the trait approach. This says that these traits are not totally in born but a mixture of nature and nurture means that the factors like Physiology, Society, and Economics have a great impact on the trait of a person which can make him a great leader. Group and Exchange Theory These theories have its root in social psychology. It says the leaders must have followers. And they must have some positive exchange between them i.e. Benefits, Rewards and Costs. A recent study indicates that the leader and followers both affect each other in a great impact. Relevant to the Exchange view an approach are there, Leader-Member Exchange approach is in discussion, these says that Leader treats subordinate differently. In precise the both develop a dynamic relationship which affects the behavior of the both. Contingency Theory This can be treated as the extension of the trait theory which deals with the situational aspect of leadership. Numerous situational variables were identified but no solid theory could be formulated. Fred Feeler test the hypothesis, he had formulated from the previous data findings. He develops a contingency model of leadership effectiveness. This contains the relationship between Leadership style and Favorableness of the situation. There are some dimensions: The Leader Member relationship. The degree of the task structure. The Leaders position and power. As per this theory the trainers is taught to diagnosis the situation to change it at optimization leadership style which match the situation. Some of the ways are as follows: Spending more informal time with the follower. Discuss task structure with them. Raise the position power Path Goal Theory This theory has been derived from the motivational theory. The path goal theory attempts to explain the impact of the leader behavior has on subordinate motivation, satisfaction and performance. These are of four major types. Directive Leadership Participative Leadership Achievement oriented Leadership Using these for types on the situational factor the leader attempt to influence subordinates perception and motivation. In other word the leader attempts to make the path to the goal for the subordinate as smooth AS possible. But the leader must depend on the situational variables present. We were been discussing the traditional theories there are some other theories which has immerged most recently: Charismatic Transformational Autocratic Transactional Are some important of theories which are in discussion. Charismatic The sociologist Max Weber described charismatic authority as resting on devotion to the exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual person, and of the normative patterns or order revealed or ordained by him. Charismatic authority is one of three forms of authority laid out in Webers tripartite classification of authority, the other two being traditional authority and rational-legal authority. The concept has acquired wide usage among sociologists. Charismatic authority is power legitimized on the basis of a leaders exceptional personal qualities or the demonstration of extraordinary insight and accomplishment, which inspire loyalty and obedience from followers. As such, it rests almost entirely on the leader; the absence of that leader for any reason can lead to the authoritys power dissolving. However, due to its idiosyncratic nature and lack of formal organization, charismatic authority depends much more strongly on the perceived legitimacy of the authority than Webers other forms of authority. For instance, a charismatic leader in a religious context might require an unchallenged belief that the leader has been touched by God, in the sense of a guru or prophet. Should the strength of this belief fade, the power of the charismatic leader can fade quickly, which is one of the ways in which this form of authority shows itself to be unstable. In contrast to the current popular use of the term charismatic leader, Weber saw chari smatic authority not so much as character traits of the charismatic leader but as a relationship between the leader and his followers much in the same way that Freud would transform Gustave Le Bons crowd psychology through the notion of identification and of an Ideal of the Ego. The validity of charisma is founded on its recognition by the leaders followers (or adepts A hanger). This recognition is not (in authentic charisma) the grounds of legitimate, but a duty, for those who are chosen, in virtue of this call and of its confirmation, to recognize this quality. Recognition which is, psychologically, a completely personal abandon, full of faith, born either from enthusiasm or from necessity and hope. No prophet has seen his quality Charismatic leadership is leadership based on the leaders ability to communicate and behave in ways that reach followers on a basic, emotional way, to inspire and motivate. We often speak of some sports and political leaders as charismatic (or not) an example being John F. Kennedy. Its difficult to identify the characteristics that make a leader charismatic, but they certainly include the ability to communicate on a very powerful emotional level, and probably include some personality traits. Developing charisma is difficult, if not impossible for many people, but luckily charismatic leadership is not essential to be an effective leader. Many other characteristics are involved in leading effectively, and there is significant evidence to indicate that it simply is not necessary to have this elusive charisma to lead others well. Relying on charisma to lead also can be problematic. For example, there have been many charismatic leaders who lack other leadership characteristics and skills (e.g. integrity) and lead their followers into situations that turn out horribly think political leaders such as Stalin, Hitler, and even business leaders (Enron). Finally, in organizations lead by charismatic leaders, there is a major problem regarding succession. What happens when a leader who relies on charisma leaves? Often the organization founders because the ability to lead rested with one persons charisma. Transformational Transformational leadership is defined as a leadership approach that engenders change in individuals and social systems. In its ideal form, it creates valuable and positive change in the followers with the end goal of developing followers into leaders. Enacted in its authentic form, transformational leadership enhances the motivation, morale and performance of his followers through a variety of mechanisms. These include connecting the followers sense of identity and self to the mission and the collective identity of the organization; being a role model for followers that inspires them; challenging followers to take greater ownership for their work, and understanding the strengths and weaknesses of followers, so the leader can align followers with tasks that optimize their performance. James MacGregor Burns (1978) [1] first introduced the concept of transforming leadership in his descriptive research on political leaders, but this term is now used in organizational psychology as well. According to Burns, transforming leadership is a process in which leaders and followers help each other to advance to a higher level of morale and motivation. Burns related to the difficulty in differentiation between management and leadership and claimed that the differences are in characteristics and behaviors. He established two concepts: transforming leadership and transactional leadership. According to Burns, the transforming approach creates significant change in the life of people and organizations. It redesigns perceptions and values, and changes expectations and aspirations of employees. Unlike in the transactional approach, it is not based on a give and take relationship, but on the leaders personality, traits and ability to make a change through example, articulation of an energizing vision and challenging goals. Transforming leaders are idealized in the sense that they are a moral exemplar of working towards the benefit of the team, organization and/or community. Burns theorized that transforming and transactional leadership was mutually exclusive styles. Now 30 years of research and a number of meta-analyses have shown that transformational and transactional leadership positively predicts a wide variety of performance outcomes including individual, group and organizational level variables The transformational leadership introduces four elements of full range of leadership: Individualized Consideration Intellectual Stimulation Inspirational Motivation Autocratic An autocratic leadership style is one of domination and repression, similar to a dictatorship. This type of leadership maximally founded in an administration of a country. There are historical examples of the disadvantages and oppression of an autocratic leadership style. Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin and Fidel Castro are examples of the autocratic leadership style. Hitler and his administration were accountable for the deaths of millions of Jewish people. Stalin killed more than 3 million people through famines, executions and forced labor. Castro has total control over Cubas resources, resulting in food rationing and attempts by numerous residents to flee the country. An autocratic leader tells people what to do, issues orders and expects them to be abide by. It is said to be suitable to use an autocratic leadership style in definite situations in an urgent situation and when only the leader can make the decision. For example, only the leader can decide who to hire fire and promote. If the substitute to being autocratic is participative leadership, then it is clear that employees in most organizations dont have a say in how much the salary should be after getting promoted. Today, leadership still has some ancient and paternalistic fundamentals. We now expect people in charge of us to respect our opinions and to engage us in making important decisions. But we still generally prefer only one person to be in on the whole charge and we want that person to live up to certain paternalistic ideals. This form of leadership, however, is breaking down because there is a clash between the desire for leaders who know what they are doing and the realities of modern complexity and rapid change. The regular way to cheat this predicament is to say that leadership no longer means calling the shots, to say instead that it means being a good facilitator and coach. When leadership is defined as promoting fresh directions and is not connected with position, then there is no longer any such thing as autocratic leadership. Yes, the person in charge of a group can make independent decisions but this is decision-making action, not leadership. On this view, leadership is always based on unofficial pressure or influence. Leadership can also be shown by example. The allusion of this move is that any time an executive makes a decision that affects the groups interests or direction, the executive introduced as a manager but not showing leadership. In other words, leadership cannot be shown by telling people what to do. Still managers need to be autocratic at times, such as emergency and to decide conflict that cannot be resolved in any other way Transactional Transactional leadership is a term used to classify a formally known group leadership theories that inquire the interactions between leaders and followers. A transactional leader focuses more on a series of transactions. These people is interested in looking out for oneself, having exchange benefits with their subordinates and clarify a sense of duty with rewards and punishments to reach goals. Transactional leaders believe that people are motivated by reward or punishment. These leaders give clear instructions to followers about what their expectations are and when those expectations are fulfilled there are rewards in store for them and failure is severely punished. They allocate work to subordinates whether resources are there or absent. Transactional leadership is based in contingency, in that reward or punishment is contingent upon performance. Despite much research that highlights its limitations, Transactional Leadership is still a popular approach with many managers. Indeed, in the Leadership vs. Management spectrum, it is very much towards the management end of the scale. The main limitation is the assumption of rational man, a person who is largely motivated by money and simple reward, and hence whose behavior is predictable. The underlying psychology is Behaviorism, including the Classical Conditioning of Pavlov and Skinners Operant Conditioning. These theories are largely based on controlled laboratory experiments (often with animals) and ignore complex emotional factors and social values. In practice, there is sufficient truth in Behaviorism to sustain Transactional approaches. This is reinforced by the supply-and-demand situation of much employment, coupled with the effects of deeper needs, as in Maslows Hierarchy. When the demand for a skill outstrips the supply, then Transactional Leadership often is insufficient, and other approaches are more effective. The transactional leader works through creating clear structures whereby it is clear what is required of their subordinates, and the rewards that they get for following orders. Punishments are not always mentioned, but they are also well-understood and formal systems of discipline are usually in place. The early stage of Transactional Leadership is in negotiating the contract whereby the subordinate is given a salary and other benefits, and the company (and by implication the subordinates manager) gets authority over the subordinate. When the Transactional Leader allocates work to a subordinate, they are considered to be fully responsible for it, whether or not they have the resources or capability to carry it out. When things go wrong, then the subordinate is considered to be personally at fault, and is punished for their failure (just as they are rewarded for succeeding). The transactional leader often uses management by exception, working on the principle that if something is operating to defined (and hence expected) performance then it does not need attention. Exceptions to expectation require praise and reward for exceeding expectation, whilst some kind of corrective action is applied for performance below expectation. Whereas Transformational Leadership has more of a selling style, Transactional Leadership, once the contract is in place, takes a telling style. Transactional leaders must understand what motivates their employees. Ensure employees understand the reward system and how they can achieve the rewards. Ensure that both reward and punishment systems are in place and are consistently exercised. Provide constructive feedback throughout the work process. Ensure that rewards and recognition are provided in a timely manner. Situational Leadership Theory Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard developed the situational model of leadership relates four different leadership styles to the followers confidence and ability to carry it out. Most of the leadership training programs offered today attempt to help you discover the leadership style you exhibit and make you aware of its strengths and weaknesses.   However, a situational leadership style is not dictated by the leadership skills of the manager. The idea of situational leadership  is more closely tied to using the style needed to be successful given the existing work environment being managed or the specific needs of the business. The effective manager is able to utilize multiple leadership styles as conditions change.   This is the theory behind the concept of situational leadership.   Implementing situational leadership in an organization then becomes a matter of training managers to recognize the current work setting or employee situation and using the most effective leadership style given that specific challenge. For example, delegating work to an employee that is ill prepared to accept that responsibility may result in the impression that the worker is incompetent.   This can lead to frustration for both the manager and worker.   Ironically, in some situations it is actually the managers inability to recognize the most effective leadership style, or refusal to switch styles, that is really the cause of an ineffective workforce. Importance of the Leadership-Performance Relationship During the past four decades, the impact of leadership styles on organizational performance has been a topic of interest among academics and practitioners working in the area of leadership. The style of leadership adopted is considered by some researchers to be particularly important in achieving organizational goals, and in evoking performance among subordinates Despite the widespread recognition of the significance and value of leadership, when studying the leadership literature, it is remarkable that the concept of leadership lacks consistency and agreement. Most of the leadership literature confuses the definition of effective leadership by failing to make clear distinctions in some definitions, such as between leaders and non-leaders, effective and ineffective leaders, as well as overlooking the definition of the levels of leadership Further, there has been limited research that has specifically addressed the relationship between leadership behavior and organizational performanc e. Despite these oversights, it is widely believed that leadership creates the vital link between organizational effectiveness and peoples performance at an organizational level Substantial numbers of management scholars have debated the effectiveness of leadership styles and behaviors In addition, much prior research has examined the assumed leadership-performance relationship, but it has examined a restricted number of leadership paradigms. This implies that different leadership paradigms could affect performance differently, depending on the context. Thus, when researching the leadership-performance relationship, the context needs to be taken into account and more paradigms need to be considered. Moreover, there are methodological problems with most existing studies. The majority of field studies have been cross-sectional in design, and the common-method bias often has been a problem when performance has been Measured Link between Leadership and Organizational Performance Several reasons indicate that there should be a relationship between leadership and performance. The first reason relates to practice. Todays intensive, dynamic markets feature innovation-based competition, Price/performance rivalry, decreasing returns, and the creative destruction of existing competencies. Scholars and practitioners suggest that effective leadership behaviors can facilitate the improvement of performance when organizations face these new challenges Understanding the effects of leadership on performance is also important because leadership is viewed by some researchers as one of the key driving forces for improving a firms performance. Effective leadership is seen as a potent source of management development and sustained competitive advantage for organizational performance improvement. For example, transactional leadership helps organizations achieve their current objectives more efficiently by linking job performance to valued rewards and by ensuring employees have the resources needed to get the job done . Visionary Leaders create a strategic vision of some future state, communicate that vision through framing and use of metaphor, model the vision by acting consistently, and build commitment towards the vision. Some scholars suggest that visionary leadership will result in high levels of cohesion, commitment, trust, motivation, and hence performance in the new organizational environments. According to Mehra when some organizations seek efficient ways to enable them to outperform others, a longstanding approach is to focus on the effects of leadership. This is because team leaders are believed to play a pivotal role in shaping collective norms, helping teams cope with their environments, and coordinating collective action. This leader-centered perspective has provided valuable insights into the relationship between leadership and team performance. Some researchers have started to explore the strategic role of leadership, and investigate how to employ leadership paradigms and use leadership behavior to improve organizational performance. The reason for this is because intangible assets such as leadership styles, culture, skill and competence, and motivation are seen increasingly as key sources of strength in those firms that can combine people and processes and organizational performance. Previous research leads to the expectation that leadership paradigms will have dir ect effects on customer satisfaction, staff satisfaction, and financial performance. However, in general, the effects of leadership on organizational performance have not been well studied, according to House and Adytas review. House and Adyta (1997) criticized leadership studies for focusing excessively on superior-subordinate relationships to the exclusion of several other functions that leaders perform, and to the exclusion of organizational and environmental variables that are crucial to mediate the leadership-performance relationship. A further problem with existing leadership research is that the results depend on the level of analysis. House and Adyta (1997) distinguished micro-level research that focuses on the leader in relation to his or her subordinates and immediate superiors, and macro-level research that focuses on the total organization and its environment. Other scholars also suggest that leaders and their leadership style influence both their subordinates and organizational outcomes. Selection of Leadership development Initiatives The models and competency frameworks detailed in the previous section are, in most cases, used as a basis for the development of leadership and management development provision within organizations as well as appraisal and performance review. It is beyond the scope of this report to offer a detailed review of the associated programmers and the range of leadership and management development initiatives available, however, we would like to introduce a number of approaches that we feel are particularly interesting in the manner in which they seek to develop the behaviors, skills and attitudes of leaders. National and International Learning Experiences: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Development Assignments (Lancaster University Management School) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Transformational Thinking (Manchester University) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Study Tour to Canada (Kings Fund) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Duality Leadership Programmed (University of Birmingham) Action Learning Sets (Nelson and Peddler) Modular Programmes: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Experienced Chief Executives Development Programmed (Kings Fund and Lancaster University Management School) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Drive for Results (Manchester University) Findings Prior to the examination of associations between leadership style, organizational culture, and performance, a phase of data reduction was necessary. The construction of meaningful indices was initiated by the use of principal components analysis with Varian rotation. Factor analysis was deemed necessary since it was considered prudent statistically to ascertain whether the adopted measures of organizational culture and leadership style captured differing dimensions of culture and style. The principal components analysis of items pertaining to organizational culture and items relating to leadership style were conducted individually. It was not necessary to delete items from the analysis due to lack of variation or because of problems of interpretation. Leadership Styles with Examples An autocratic leader is the one who believes in taking all the vital decisions himself. It is the leader who decides how the work has to be done and by whom. Once the decision has been made, there is no scope of any modify. The subordinates simply carry on with the works assigned to them. They are not allowed to give any input on the topic of how they should do their work or perform daily behavior. Every detail is pre-decided by the leader himself. In case some changes in the work agenda have to be made, they are made by the leader without consulting any one else. Autocratic leadership style works well if the leader is proficient and knowledgeable adequate to decide about each and every thing. Reliable is considered one of the most effective leadership styles in case there is some disaster situation and quick decisions need to be taken. If there is no time left for discussion or weighing various options, then this type of leadership style gives the best results. Authoritarian leadership styles examples can be found in the real world in people like Bill Gates and John F Kennedy. Bill Gates followed the authoritarian leadership style and steered Microsoft towards enormous success. According to Bill Gates, he had a vision when he took reins of the company and then used all the resources available to make that vision a reality. His success can be judged from the way personal computers industry has advanced in America today. Participative Participative leadership style involves the leader taking into consideration the opinions of some of his employees before arriving at the final decision. This leadership style earns the leader immense respect and loyalty among his subordinates, as they feel that their opinions matter too. This leadership style is useful for the leader as he gets to see a given situation from all directions, before deciding on the final course of action. This leadership style works really well in situations when the leader does not know everything and he relies on his subordinates knowledge for taking decisions. The biggest advantage of this leadership and management style is that it helps in ascertaining and identifying future leaders among the subordinates. Also, it keeps a teams spirit and morale high, as the team members feel that their opinions are valued by their leader. Heres a participative leadership styles examples An advertising manager approaches his team members on how to promote a particular product of a company. The team members brain storm over the issue, some suggest print media, and others suggest direct mails to the prospective clients. The participative leader takes all these suggestions, weighs their pros and cons and then takes the final decision after considering his team members opinions. Case Study This case is about the charismatic and controversial former captain of the Indian national cricket team, Sourav Ganguly. The case outlines the emergence of Ganguly as a leader, his stunning rise and later fall from grace. Ganguly became the captain of the team in 2000, when it was in a deep crisis. Over the next few years, with the help of the coach John Wright, he soon turned the team into a combative unit. His team building skills, impartiality and, guts displayed in supporting his team members through thick and thin, endeared him to the team. Experts credited him with instilling a sense of aggression in the team. Ganguly soon became the most successful captain in the history of Indian cricket. The case also discusses the fall of Ganguly in 2005 and his public spat with Coach Greg Chappell (Chappell) which led to his exit from the team. Since age was not on his side, few felt that Ganguly could make a comeback into the team. But Ganguly refused to announce his retirement and contin ued to fight to win back his place in the team despite all the odds. In 2000, when Ganguly took over as captain, Indian cricket was at its nadir. The match fixing scandal had taken its toll with some senior players including former captain Mohammed Azharuddin and cricketer Ajay Jadeja being banned from the game. The morale of the team was at an all-time low. The team, considered tigers at home, had just lost its first home series in many years to South Africa. In fact, Ganguly was not the first choice for the captaincy. He got the job as Tendulkar was reluctant to take on the additional responsibility of captaincy. Gangulys problems were compounded in the end of September 2005, when Dalmiya was defeated by Pawar in the BCCI elections. On the same day of winning the elections, Pawar axed the selectors who had been sympathetic to Ganguly. It was widely believed that Gangulys era was over. The selection committee led by more appointed Dravid as captain. In October 2005, Ganguly was dropped from the ODI squad. In November 2005, Ganguly was sacked as captain of the Indian test squad. With the doors to the team being shut, Ganguly was forced to spend time playing domestic cricket. Experts felt that while his audacity and habit of speaking his mind had earned him respect in cricketing circles, they had also served to make him a lot of enemies w The Fighter Refuses to Quit. Despite all the criticism, when Ganguly was dropped from the squad, many Indian fans, especially fans in his home state West Bengal were upset. There was also a sympathy wave for Ganguly. Gangulys fan following knew no national borders. Even in Pakistan, he had a huge fan following though he performed exceedingly well against the archrivals. Whenever I ndian journalists went to Pakistan, the fans asked about Ganguly and expressed their displeasure at how he had been treated by his countrymen. Despite all the criticism, when Ganguly was dropped from the squad, many Indian fans, especially fans in his home state West Bengal were upset. There was also a sympathy wave for Ganguly. Gangulys fan following knew no national borders. Even in Pakistan, he had a huge fan following though he performed exceedingly well against the archrivals. Whenever Indian journalists went to Pakistan, the fans asked about Ganguly and expressed their displeasure at how he had been treated by his countrymen.

Mirror Essay -- essays research papers

In the first stanza, the "I am not cruel, only truthful" phrase reveals the mirror's personality and charter. Unlike humans a mirror cannot judge her with opinions. Sylvia Plath uses onomatopoeia to give the mirror human characteristics. On line five she writes "The eye of a little god, four-cornered" which shows that the mirror is given God-like powers over the women. It becomes almost an obsessive relationship between the mirror and the women because she looks to the mirror for comfort only to confronted with the truth about your youth wasting away. The mirror triggers conscious and unconscious memories of her life faithfully. On line thirteen it reads "I see her back, and reflect it faithfully" once again showing that truthful charter of the mirror. Regardless of the fact she hates her reflection the women becomes dependent on the mirror, and on line fifteen you can see that relationship were it says "I am important to her. She comes and goes." The phase "I am silver and exact. I have no preconceptions." Shows that a mirror is not capable of showing anything else, then what is put in front of it. The mirror shows no color and has no preference. Although the mirror revels reality the women still clings to objects that blind her from the truth. In the second stanza, the phase "Then she turn to those liars, the candles or the moon" shows that the woman is attempting to hide her flaws behind the darkness. It is very ...

Bristol and Liverpool: the Demise and Rise of Rival Ports in the Eighteenth Century Slave Trade.

Bristol and Liverpool: The demise and rise of rival ports in the eighteenth century slave trade. In the early eighteenth century, Bristol’s dominant position as a slave trading port remained virtually unchallenged. Yet, by the end of the century, Liverpool firmly established its status as Britain’s leading slave trading port, surpassing Bristol completely. Despite some similarities between the rival ports, a number of factors, decisions and circumstances serve to explain Liverpool’s magnificent rise and Bristol’s consequent demise. The ports differing geographical locations, markets, trade goods, vessels, voyages and war impacts all played a role in Liverpool’s subversion of Bristol. The decision-making and business capabilities of the merchants also proved influential in the developments of the ports. This essay argues that most importantly, the Bristolian merchants’ poor economic and market decisions, compared with the exceptional business acumen of Liverpudlian merchants, sealed the fate of both ports. Bristol’s geographical location and new parliamentary legislation acted favourably to propel the town into the slave trade. The location of the River Severn and Bristol Channel encouraged early involvement in trade over the waterways, stimulating the development of the port city. Contributions to Atlantic trade also initiated Bristol’s role in the sugar trade, following the capture of Jamaica in 1655. [1] However, increased competition in the trade of sugar thrust Bristol merchants into the trade of slaves. An Act passed in 1698 further encouraged Bristol’s participation in slave trading, stating that any subject of Great Britain could trade to any part of Africa â€Å"between Cape Blanco and the Cape of Good Hope†, successfully ending the London Company’s monopoly. 2] Bristol’s geography served to hinder the port’s trading ability, mainly due to difficulties in navigating the meandering River Avon, its wide tidal range, and industrial waste in the river. Geographical location and legislation also contributed to Liverpool’s commencement in the slave trade. Located on the coast in northwest England, Liverpool benefited from close proximity to many industrial and textile producing centres such as Manchester, Birmingham and Sheffield. A network of rivers, including the River Mersey, made the port easily accessible to the many incoming and outgoing vessels. 3] The Isle of Man provided a useful off shore base, allowing for trade with Ireland and entry into the contraband trade with Spain. The Grenville Treaty of 1747 soon ended this arrangement, forcing Liverpudlian merchants to consider new options for trade. Utilizing the knowledge and wealth gained from contraband trade, the merchants developed vessels and goods specially suited to the African market, putting them towards gaining entrance to the slave trade. [4] Small vessels and on board slave revolts lessened the slave carrying capacity and efficiency of Bristol merchants ships. The smaller size of Bristol vessels perhaps resulted from the winding nature of the River Avon, with navigation difficult for larger ships. The period 1727 to 1769 provides an example of seventy Bristol vessels, one at fifty tons, thirteen at fifty-one to seventy-one tons, and thirty-eight at seventy-six to one hundred tons. [5] Even before Liverpool’s rise, London outshone Bristol in tonnage, 5,925 tons to 4,250 tons at a value of 137,000 to 98,820 pounds Stirling. [6] The origins of slaves purchased by Bristolians, coupled with lengthy on shore waiting times for slave deliveries, both reduced carrying capacity and efficiency of vessels. A concentration of suicide prone Ibo slaves and rebellious Ibibio slaves caused many problems. Consequently, merchants received instruction to shackle and bolt slaves from the popular Bight of Biafra region, to reduce the loss of slaves on board vessels. [7] Liverpool merchants similarly witnessed slave revolts, but they experienced superior carrying capacity and efficiency of vessels. Liverpool specialised in manufacturing fast slaving vessels in the docks of the River Mersey. [8] Liverpool’s carrying capacity far exceeded that of Bristol, as demonstrated in the 1100 ton Kent of 1773, the largest ship built in Northern England. 9] Such large ships and the capacity of five slaves per two tons, allowed for maximum vessel efficiency, and in 1753, 101 Liverpool vessels managed to carry over 30,000 slaves to the Americas. Poor vessel conditions for slaves resulted from maximising carrying capacities, and up to a third of slaves died. [10] One renowned incident on board the Zong di splays how captains attempted to avoid the loss of slaves: Captain Collingwood threw 132 sickly slaves overboard in order to claim insurance, rather than risk not selling them in the Americas. 11] Unbearable conditions on board also resulted in increased mutinies between 1751 and 1775, which Mannix and Cowley attribute to ruthless Liverpudlians’ efforts to save money by reducing the size of crews on vessels. [12] Slaving voyages and their destinations impacted greatly on Bristol’s attempts to gain prominence in the slave trade. Bristol’s shorter voyage time gave merchants a distinct advantage over London, and until the 1730s most Bristol voyages travelled to the Bight of Biafra where they encountered little competition. 13] Most Bristol voyages targeted Old Calabar, which oversupplied male slaves, leading to many trading failures. Merchants such as James Rogers only managed a delivery rate of seventy-three per cent from this region. [14] Bristol destination choi ces remained conservative, including Angola and the Gold Coast, despite increasing competition there from Liverpool. [15] The rise of Liverpool caused a vast reduction in voyages made by Bristolians. Jamaican voyages fell from sixty-nine to twenty-five per cent from 1728 to 1730. [16] As a result, the period of 1786 to 1807 produced only 240 voyages, compared with 2,473 from Liverpool. 17] Voyages direct to Jamaica became a common trend by 1750, with 104 trips taking place between 1749 and 1755, compared with seventy-four voyages following various triangle trade patterns. [18] Liverpool merchants achieved more numerous and varied voyages and destinations compared with Bristol. Liverpool’s first slave trade voyage departed in 1708, which is a much later entry than Bristol. Despite Bristol’s early advantage and established market destinations, Liverpool succeeded in creating new slaving destinations in areas such as Sierra Leone, Cameroon and Gabon. 19] In contrast with Bristol’s prioritisation of the region, only one voyage took place to Old Calabar in 1793 out of forty-seven voyages, instead thirty-six sailed to Angola where slaves were much more desirable. [20] In 1771 alone, 105 vessels travelled to Africa, obtaining 28,200 slaves. [21] In Jamaica, Liverpool trade comprised seventy-four per cent of delivered slaves and seventy-two per cent of visiting vessels. Liverpool’s dominant presence at Atlantic slave trade destinations displays the port’s numerous options, and their lack of presence at the unpopular sites displays their competent business choices. The choice of trade goods further influenced Bristol’s success as a slave trading port. James Rogers' voyages, perhaps not entirely typical of Bristol trading, provided African merchants with East Indian and English textiles, bar iron, gunpowder, beads, hardware and liquor. [22] Other Bristol merchants traded with refined sugar, haberdashery, window glass, bottled beer, wrought iron, woollens, copper and brass, in return for slaves. Wales generally provided the tin and iron for Bristol’s supplies. 23] Once in Africa, in addition to slaves, Bristol merchants requested items such as wax, ivory and redwood, either for sale in the Americas or back in Bristol. [24] Interestingly, Bristolians sent little linen to the African coast in comparison with other slave trading ports. [25] Linen stood as a leading commodity in Liverpool’s choice of trading goods, giving the port a considerable advantage over Bristol. Linen formed ninety-one per cent of all British exports to No rth America and West Africa, which Liverpool benefited from due to its easy acquisition of Lancashire cottons and Manchester textiles. 26] Manchester’s provision of checks and silk handkerchiefs contributed to the expulsion of Bristol’s German, French and Scottish textiles from the market. [27] In addition to linen, Liverpool traded copper and brass from Staffordshire, salt from Cheshire, and firearms from Birmingham. Liverpool also re-exported a number of goods from East India, such as Chintz, glass beads, cotton and calicoes. [28] The careful assortment of trade goods meant numerous colonies demanded trade with Liverpool. A number of international conflicts severely hindered Bristol’s progress in the slave trade. Throughout the eighteenth century conflicts existed with France, Spain and America. Bristol’s location in relation to the Bristol Channel meant a great number of vessels were lost to french privateers. [29] Consequently, Bristol successfully turned to privateering during the Spanish Succession from 1702 to 1713. The capture of over seventeen of its vessels by the Spaniards deepened Bristol’s involvement in privateering further during the Seven Years War (1756 to 1763). Trade with the West Indies suffered in consequence, due to the heavy amount of investment in privateers. 30] The American War of Independence and subsequent loss of American colonies hampered the triangular trade, which Bristolians heavily relied on. Shipping from the United States dropped from approximately 21,202 tons in 1773-7 to 12,326 in 1778-80. [31] Bristol’s slave trade experienced war in an entirely negative way during this period. On the other hand, Liverpool made substantial gains from G reat Britain’s involvement in international conflicts. Williamson, an observer of the War of the Austrian Succession 1739 to 1748, stated that: â€Å"trade flourished and spread her golden wings so extensively that if they had ossessed it seven years longer, it would have enlarged the size and riches of the town to a prodigious degree†[32] Involvement in conflicts meant that the dockyards on the River Mersey fitted out many ships in order to fill the void left by Bristol’s departure from trade. Slave trading voyages increased considerably during the wars, and vessels successfully avoided meeting French privateers due to Liverpool’s advantageous geographical location. War also enabled Liverpool merchants to take advantage of price differentials between England and the colonies. Profits inevitably resulted, which contrasts starkly with Bristol’s experience of the wars. [33] Vast potential existed for profit in the slave trade, yet when factoring in costs, Bristol struggled to reap the benefits of the system. Loss of slaves in the middle passage presented one expense, as Captain Black’s letter to James Rogers depicted. His voyage lost thirteen female slaves, fifty-six males and sixteen sailors. [34] Bristol merchants also paid generous wages, commissions and financial incentives to captains and slave sellers in order to ensure a loyal partnership. 35] When Robert Thiennison’s brother, a cook on Rogers’ Pearle, died, he requested wages of 55 shillings for a month’s work, revealing the high wages paid by Bristolians. High duties also frustrated Bristol merchants, especially those on tobacco, which is something they specialised in. [36] David Richardson offers an estimated return of 7. 8 to 19. 8 per cent on Bristol voyages, ho wever Rogers’ voyages barely managed three per cent profit, and the highest estimate still comes in lower than the profits made by Liverpudlians. 37] Liverpudlian merchants made significantly higher profits in the slave trade, primarily due to cunning commercial decisions. Manipulated stock records enabled merchants to avoid paying duties on up to twenty per cent of the tobacco shipped into the port. [38] Proposed estimates suggest that 100-ton ships returned profits of 750 pounds Stirling based on five Negroes per two tons. [39] The Liverpool vessel Lively produced a 300 per cent profit in 1737, but most voyages secured around ten per cent profit, which barely proved sufficient considering the risks involved in slaving. 40] One particular Liverpool voyage achieved a profit of 8000 pounds Stirling (before deductions for victuals and trade goods), with costs approximately comprising duties of 134 pounds, Doctor wages of thirteen pounds, Captain salary of 4 pounds per 104 made on total returns, and commission costs of 454 pounds Stirling. [41] Liverpudlians clearly possessed a unique capability to make large profits, despite mounting costs. The merchant oligarchy of Bristol overlooked crucial investments in port facilities in favour of spending profits on luxurious lifestyles, proving detrimental to their trade accomplishments. Instead, investments centred around the urban â€Å"renaissance† taking place in the city, rather than focusing on shifting towards industrialisation[42]. Prioritising Caribbean ventures over local industrial schemes demonstrates a further hindrance to the development of Bristol. [43] It appears that Bristolians’ preferences centred on funding a lifestyle founded on wealth and consumption, reflected in the growing local demand for sugar and tobacco. Furthermore, Bristol did not invest in the port until the nineteenth century, when developments included a floating harbour, which proved highly inefficient also. 44] Comparatively, the port of Liverpool received extensive urban development as a result of profits made in the slave trade. The city underwent considerable expansion and urban growth, facilitating merchants’ ability to exploit the Atlantic trade system and various markets. The city’s wealth stemmed from the merchants, hence their control over city d evelopments. Subsequently, profits funded financial structures and transport networks including canals, enabling Liverpool to maintain control over sources of goods such as the salt of Cheshire. 45] Investment in the docklands proved most influential, earning Liverpool the title of largest ship construction site in England, with sixty-one of the 161 English-built slave vessels manufactured in Liverpool. [46] The swift response to mercantile needs and construction of the Midlands canal network resulted in the shipment of valuable, high demand trade goods to Liverpool, not Bristol. A notable shift in Bristol’s priorities may account for Liverpool’s eclipse of Bristol as the leading slave trading port in England. The transition to specialisation in the sugar trade proves the most convincing causal factor in the reduced role in slave trading. The Bristolian pleasures derived from sugar, tobacco and snuff consumption drove merchants to focus on supplying the domestic market with what locals demanded. [47] The sugar industry thrived in Bristol, which is reinforced by the sustained existence of twenty sugarhouses between 1720 and 1775. [48] Tobacco and sugar faced restrictions regarding direct trade to foreign countries, perhaps further encouraging Bristolians to cater to local markets. 49] One argument proposes that Bristol became more conservative, simply preferring safer, more profitable trade options as they arose. A Jamaican agent noted that â€Å"Bristol†¦is rich enough, but don’t care to launch out much†. John Wesley, an abolitionist, also observed Bristol’s â€Å"love of money and ease†. [50] The increasing abolitionist environment and comparative ease of the sugar trade perhaps rendered the Bristolians content with exiting the slave trade. The lack of familial slaving dynasties and a reluctance to engage in mercantile competition with close ties offer two further justifications for Bristol’s demise in the slave trade. Bristol failed to secure dynasties through which to pass commercial knowledge and wealth to, mainly because eighteen of the leading twenty-five Bristol merchants died as bachelors. Encouraging others to continue the slave trade proved particularly difficult. The problems faced in re-exporting tobacco presented one deterrent, and the inevitable encounters with disease on the African coast and challenges in securing return goods also discouraged new entrants to the trade. [51] Bristol merchants tended to form strong, friendly connections with fellow traders, making ruthless competition difficult. To â€Å"wage war† against familial, banking or residential associates would destroy useful connections and jeopardise one’s reputation. [52] Liverpool merchants, on the other hand, formed strong bonds and maintained family dynasties, but did not refrain from competition, further enhancing their prominence. [53] The Bristol merchants experienced limitations in available market options, which presented a sizeable obstacle to success in the slave trade. Bristol traders lacked the vital trade goods necessary for securing demand from markets that would stock vessels with healthy slaves from desirable locations. Merchants such as Rogers tended to focus on Jamaica and Grenada to sell their slaves, places whose markets displayed an aversion to slaves from Old Calabar due to their poor health and high mortality. [54] These detrimental oversights in buying unsuitable slave cargoes and being unaware of the slave preferences at plantations provided great motivation to move away from trading in slaves. Bristol persisted in trading commodities with Jamaica, South Carolina and Charlestown, however they gained no advantage over Liverpool or even London. 55] Furthermore, Bristol failed to respond to new markets such as the Ceded Islands including Dominica and St Vincent, leaving the opportunity wide open for Liverpool. Liverpool slave traders successfully seized every new market opportunity that arose, providing numerous market options for the diverse trade goods they supplied. After trade opened up in 1750, Liverpool launched into trade with Upper Guinea and other markets in America, where they made g ains over Bristol. 56] Liverpool also possessed advantageous contacts throughout the West African coast, especially Sierra Leone. [57] In contrast to Bristol, Liverpool concentrated on lesser markets such as Barbados and the Leeward Islands. Barbados supplied over fifty per cent of Liverpool’s imports after 1735, closely followed by Chesapeake, the Leeward Islands and Jamaica. The range of trade goods supplied, and entrance into the trade at a time of colonial economy deceleration also enabled Liverpool merchants to almost monopolise the Anglo-American commercial market. 58] Liverpool merchants conducted business on the coast of Africa from the Senegal River to Ambriz[59], where healthy slave populations attribute to the demand for Liverpool commerce in a vast number of West Indian locations. With so many options for destinations to conduct trade with slaves, it is unsurprising that Liverpool ousted the port of Bristol from its dominant position. Despite the numerous causes a ttributed to the demise of Bristol, the inability of merchants to make economical, competent business decisions ultimately present the most significant explanations. Bristolians paid munificent salaries to captains and crew, as well as allowing privileges, daily charges and commission payments. Captains ate and drank excessively on shore, eroding profits considerably. Less profit also resulted from fully manning vessels, with the knock on effect of needing to charge more for slaves. [60] Bristol merchants found themselves outbid for slaves in Old Calabar, driving them to purchase unhealthy slaves. Their condition worsened further due to cheap provisions on board. [61] Consequently, prices achieved in the Americas for slaves were lower. The Bristol merchants justifiably earned a reputation as extravagant and unbusinesslike squanderers, who treated their Captains like â€Å"young gentlemen on the Grand Tour†. [62] A credit crisis in 1793 caused many merchants to go bankrupt, putting an end to the slave trade for the majority of Bristolians. [63] The lack of business acumen amongst Bristol merchants proved detrimental to their success. Conversely, the business expertise and economical ability of Liverpudlian merchants secured the city’s title of the most successful slave trading port in Europe. Liverpool merchants trained their crew better, paid lower wages, and minimized outfitting costs. Additionally, merchants were economical by paying wages annually not monthly, and refusing cabin privileges, primages and port allowances. For example, crew ate salt beef and drank rum punch on board their vessel, compared with Bristol crewmembers’ excessive drinking of Madeira on shore. [64] Low expenditure enabled Liverpudlians to sell slaves for four to five pounds Stirling less than other traders, underselling Bristolians considerably. 65] Accepting Bills of Exchange avoided reliance on return goods for payment, giving flexibility to merchants, which allowed them to return direct to Africa to embark more slaves. Liverpool merchants skilfully evaded customs administrators by importing â€Å"damaged† and therefore duty free goods, and disembarking â€Å"underweight† hogsheads, only to re-export them at heavier weights. [66] These tricks meant payment of less duty ta x, maximising profits. Resourceful and imaginative actions and decisions thrust Liverpool to record heights never reached by Bristol in the slave trade. Liverpool’s skilful rise to prominence in the slave trade undoubtedly provides explanation for Bristol’s demise from a once eminent slave trading port. Geographical location, vessel size, voyages, trade goods, international conflicts, market destinations, and urban development all provide convincing explanations of Bristol’s fall from the position of leading British port. However, problems could easily have been overcome or averted had the Bristol merchants possessed strong business capability, judgement skills and knowledge. Perhaps Bristol’s priorities did shift toward catering for the domestic market. Nevertheless, the Bristolians’ lack of skills and knowledge, so clearly possessed by Liverpool merchants, sealed Bristol’s demise from a once world-leading slaving port to an average sugar-importing town. Liverpool on the other hand, traded slaves on such a grand scale that it secured its position amongst Europe’s leading port towns far beyond the abolition of the slave trade. Word Count: 3,258 BIBLIOGRAPHY Primary Sources An account of the ships employed in the African trade, from the ports of London and Bristol, belonging to the separate traders to Africa; with the value of the said ships and cargoes, and the number of Negroes usually carried by the said ships, London, 1713, Eighteenth Century Collections Online. Gale Group. Captain W. Black of the Ship Jupiter to James Rogers, owner of The Jupiter, 20th August 1790, James Rogers Papers, Public Record Office, C/107/12, http://www. englandpast. net/education/. Great Britain, Parliament, An act for the better improvement of the trade to Africa, by establishing a regulated company, London, 1708, Eighteenth Century Collections Online. Gale Group. Letter To Captain Richard Prankard commander of the Unity Snow to Angola, Bristol, 29 January 1732, Bristol Central Reference Library, The Jefferies Collection: Volume 13, http://www. englandpast. net/education/. Letter from Robert Thiennison (? ) to James Rogers, slave ship owner concerning his brother who was a ship’s cook on the Pearl, Mr. Rogers London 15 August, 1786, Public Record Office, C107/8, http://www. englandpast. et/education/. Secondary Sources Behrendt, Stephen D. , â€Å"Markets, Transaction Cycles, and Profits: Merchant Decision Making in the British Slave Trade†, The William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 58, No. 1, 2001, pp. 171-204. Behrendt, Stephen D. , â€Å"The Annual Volume and Regional Distribution of the British slave trade, 1780-1807†, Journal of African Hi story, Vol. 38, 1997, pp. 187-211. Benezet, Anthony, Some historical account of Guinea, its situation, produce, and the general disposition of its inhabitants. With an inquiry into the rise and progress of the slave trade, its nature, and lamentable effects. Also a republication of the sentiments of several authors of note on this interesting subject: particularly an extract of a treatise written by Granville Sharpe, Philadelphia, 1771, http://www. gutenberg. org/files/11489/11489-h/11489-h. htm. Clarkson, Thomas, The history of the rise, progress, and accomplishment of the abolition of the African slave-trade by the British parliament, Vol. 1, London, 1808, http://www. gutenberg. org/files/12428/12428-8. txt. Clemens, Paul G. E. , â€Å"The Rise of Liverpool, 1665-1750†, The Economic History Review, Vol. 9, No. 2, 1976, pp. 211-225. Enfield, William. An essay towards the history of Leverpool, drawn up from papers left by the late Mr. George Perry, and from other materials since collected, by William Enfield. With views of the principal public structures, a chart of the harbour, and a map of the environ, 2nd Ed. , 1774. Eighteenth Century Collections Online. Gale Group. Hyde, F. , Parkinson, B. , & Marriner, S. , â€Å"The Nature and Profitability of the Liverpool Slave Trade†, The Economic History Review, Vol. 5, No. 3, 1953, pp. 368-377. Jones, S. J. â€Å"The Growth of Bristol: The Regional Aspect of City Development†, Transactions and Papers (Institute of British Geographers), No. 11, 1946, pp. 57-83. Klein, Herbert S. , â€Å"The English Slave Trade to Jamaica, 1782-1808†, The Economic History Review, Vol. 31, No. 1, 1978, pp. 25-45. MacInnes, C. M. , â€Å"Bristol and the slave trade†, in Patrick McGrath (ed. ), Bristol in the Eighteenth Century, Newton Abbot, 1972. Mackenzie-Grive, Averil, The Last Years of the English Slave Trade: Liverpool, 1750-1807, London, 1941. Morgan, Kenneth, â€Å"Bristol and the Atlantic Trade in the Eighteenth Century†, The English Historical Review, Vol. 07, No. 424, 1992, pp. 626-650. Morgan, Kenneth, â€Å"Bristol West India Merchants in the Eighteenth Century†, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Vol. 3, 1993, pp. 185- 208. Morgan, Kenneth, â€Å"James Rogers and the Bristol slave trade†, Historical Research, Vol. 76, No. 192, 2003, pp. 189-216. Morgan, Kenneth, â€Å"Shipping Patterns and the Atlantic Trade of Bristol, 1749-1770†, The William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 46, No. 3. , 1989, pp. 506-538. Richardson, David, â€Å"Shipboard Revolts, African Authority, and the Atlantic Slave Trade†, The William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 8, No. 1, 2001, pp. 69-92. Richardson, David, â€Å"Slavery and Bristol’s ‘Golden Age’†, Slavery and Abolition, Vol. 26, No. 1, 2005, pp. 35-54. Williams, Gomer, History of the Liverpool privateers and Letters of Marque: With an account of the Liverpool slave trade, London, 1897. Williams, Eric, â€Å"The Golden Age of the Slave System in Britain†, The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 25, No. 1, 1940, pp. 60-106. Websites Liverpool & The Slave Trade, http://www. liverpoolinpictures. com/Slavery_in_Liverpool. htm —à ¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€œ [1] S. J. Jones, â€Å"The Growth of Bristol: The Regional Aspect of City Development†, Transactions and Papers (Institute of British Geographers), No. 11, 1946, pp. 64; 71. [2] Great Britain, Parliament, An act for the better improvement of the trade to Africa, by establishing a regulated company, London, 1708, Eighteenth Century Collections Online. Gale Group. [3] Eric Williams, â€Å"The Golden Age of the Slave System in Britain†, The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 25, No. 1, 1940, p. 67. [4] Gomer Williams, History of the Liverpool privateers and Letters of Marque: With an account of the Liverpool slave trade, London, 1897, pp. 67-468. [5] C. M. MacInnes, â€Å"Bristol and the slave trade†, in Patrick McGrath (ed. ), Bristol in the Eighteenth Century, Newton Abbot, 1972, p. 173. [6] An account of the ships employed in the African trade, London, 1713, Eighteenth Century Collections Online. Gale Group. [7] David Richardson, â€Å"Slavery and Bristol’s ‘Gold en Age’†, Slavery and Abolition, Vol. 26, No. 1, 2005, p. 44; David Richardson, â€Å"Shipboard Revolts, African Authority, and the Atlantic Slave Trade†, The William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 58, No. 1, 2001, pp. 74, 80. 8] Eric Williams, p. 69. [9] Averil Mackenzie-Grive, The Last Years of the English Slave Trade: Liverpool, 1750-1807, London, 1941, p. 16. [10] F. Hyde, B. Parkinson, & S. Marriner, â€Å"The Nature and Profitability of the Liverpool Slave Trade†, The Economic History Review, Vol. 5, No. 3, 1953, p372; Anthony Benezet, Some historical account of Guinea, Philadelphia, 1771. [11] Thomas Clarkson, The history of the rise, progress, and accomplishment of the abolition of the African slave-trade by the British parliament, Vol. 1, London, 1808. 12] David Richardson, â€Å"Shipboard Revolts, African Authority, and the Atlantic Slave Trade†, p. 77. [13] David Richardson, â€Å"Slavery and Bristol’s ‘Golden Age’†, pp. 42-3. [14] Kenneth Morgan, â€Å"James Rogers and the Bristol slave trade†, Historical Research, Vol. 76, No. 192, 2003, pp. 195, 200. [15] Kenneth Morgan, â€Å"Bristol and the Atlantic Trade in the Eighteenth Century†, The English Historical Review, Vol. 107, No. 424, 1992, p. 641. [16] Similarly, South Carolinian voyages also fell by twenty-fiver per cent. Ibid. , p. 640. [17] Stephen D. Behrendt, â€Å"The Annual Volume and Regional Distribution of the British slave trade, 1780-1807†, Journal of African History, Vol. 38, 1997, p. 189. [18] Kenneth Morgan, â€Å"Shipping Patterns and the Atlantic Trade of Bristol, 1749-1770†, The William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 46, No. 3. , 1989, pp. 515, 532. [19] Morgan, â€Å"Bristol and the Atlantic Trade in the Eighteenth Century†, p. 641. [20] Stephen D. Behrendt, â€Å"Markets, Transaction Cycles, and Profits: Merchant Decision Making in the British Slave Trade†, The William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 58, No. 1, 2001, p. 88. [21] William Enfield, An essay towards the history of Leverpool, 2nd Ed. , 1774. [22] Morgan, â€Å"James Rogers and the Bristol slave trade†, p. 197. [23] Morgan, â€Å"Bristol and the Atlantic Trade in the Eighteenth Century†, p. 635. [24] Letter To Captain Richard Prankard commander of the Unity Snow to Angola, Bristol, 29 January 1732, Bristol Central Reference Library, The Jefferies Collection: Volume 13. [25] Morgan, â€Å"Bristol and the Atlantic Trade in the Eighteenth Century†, p. 635. [26] Ibid. ; Eric Williams, p. 67. [27] Gomer Williams, p. 467. 28] Liverpool & The Slave Trade, http://www. liverpoolinpictures. com/; Enfield, p. 85. [29] MacInnes, p. 175. [30] Morgan, â€Å"Bristol and the Atlantic Trade in the Eighteenth Century†, pp. 630-2. [31] Jones, p. 76; Ibid. [32] Mackenzie-Grive, p. 4. [33] Paul G. E. Clemens, â€Å"The Rise of Liverpool, 1665-1750†, The Economic History Review, Vol. 29, No. 2, 1976, p. 210. [34] Captain W. Black of the Ship Jupiter to James Rogers, owner of The Jupiter, 20th August 1790, James Rogers Papers, Public Record Office, C/107/12 [35] Richardson, â€Å"Slavery and Bristol’s ‘Golden Age’†, p. 40. 36] Morgan, â€Å"Bristol and the Atlantic Trade in the Eighteenth Century†, p. 645. [37] Morgan, â€Å"James Rogers and the Bristol slave trade†, p. 215. [38] Clemens, p. 215. [39] However, restrictions of two Negroes per ton reduced potential profits to 200 pounds Stirling per voyage. Hyde et al. , p. 372. [40] Liverpool & The Slave Trade, http://www. liverpoolinpictures. com. [41] Gomer Williams, p. 471. [42] Richardson, â€Å"Slavery and Bristol’s ‘Golden Age’†, p. 46-7. [43] Kenneth Morgan, â€Å"Bristol West India Merchants in the Eighteenth Century†, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Vol. , 1993, p. 205. [44] Morgan, â€Å"Bristol and the Atlantic Trade in the Eighteenth Century†, p. 628. [45] Clemens, p. 212-7. [46] Herbert S. Klein, â€Å"The English Slave Trade to Jamaica, 1782-1808†, The Economic History Review, Vol. 31, No. 1, 1978, p. 42. [47] Richardson, â€Å"Slavery and Bristol’s ‘Golden Age’†, p. 47. [48] Jones, p. 71. [49] Morgan, â€Å"Bristol and the Atlantic Trade in the Eighteenth Century†, p. 646. [50] Morga n, â€Å"Bristol West India Merchants in the Eighteenth Century†, p. 204. [51] Ibid. , p. 203. [52] Ibid. , p. 205. [53] Clemens, p. 217. 54] Morgan, â€Å"James Rogers and the Bristol slave trade†, pp. 205, 209, 215. [55] Clemens, p. 219. [56] Richardson, â€Å"Slavery and Bristol’s ‘Golden Age’†, p. 46. [57] Morgan, â€Å"James Rogers and the Bristol slave trade†, p. 199. [58] Clemens, pp. 213-8. [59] Behrendt, â€Å"Markets, Transaction Cycles†, p. 172. [60] Gomer Williams, p. 471. [61] Morgan, â€Å"James Rogers and the Bristol slave trade†, pp. 196, 203. [62] Mackenzie-Grive, p. 4. [63] Morgan, â€Å"Bristol and the Atlantic Trade in the Eighteenth Century†, p. 633. [64] Gomer Williams, p. 471; MacInnes, p. 170. [65] Ibid. , p. 470. [66] Clemens, pp. 215, 221.

mediviel Plagiue essays

mediviel Plagiue essays The Medieval Holocaust was a terrible event for many people in communities of that time period. This was the greatest epidemic that ever happened. People could not figure out what caused the Plague. They started to look for someone to blame. They finally looked at the Jews and blamed them for poisoning the water. This led to devastating effects on the Jewish community with regards to the family and social status. This was the greatest epidemic of all time. The Plague was felt all around the world. In some lands everyone died not a soul was left. Ships were found full of cargo and he crew all dead. The ship was just drifting with no one to guide it. In other kingdoms and cities so many people died it was terrible to describe. The Pope at Avignon stopped all his duties, locked himself in his room, allowed no one to see him and had a fire burning at all times. Only wise teachers and physicians could come up with it was gods would for this to happen. Since the Plague was in one place it was in another, and lasted more than a year. The epidemic also came to Strasbourg in the summer, and it is said that about sixteen thousand people died. May have panicked and needed to blame someone. Since the Jews throughout the world were all ready disliked, they accused them of having caused the Plague by putting poison in the water and in the wells. So having been disliked many people blamed the Jews because they needed to point the finger at somebody, because of this the Jews were forced to confess to the poisoning. Nevertheless the Jews were burnt all the way from the Mediterranean into Germany, but not in Avignon because the Pope protected them there. The burning happened on a Saturday, which was St. Valentines Day. The Jews were burned on a wooden platform in their cemetery. Those who wanted to baptize themselves were spared. Its been said that about one thousand of them accepted the baptism. The council to ...

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